MON OBJECTIF

[July 2012]

My purpose for this blog is to highlight a capsule of a time and place in Paris that encompasses some of the greatest artists and culture in modern history.  Through my own pictures, outside books and research, along with my personal research while traversing through the places the Lost Generation lived and flourished in their craft, I have striven to reconstruct--at the very least--a snap-shot into one of the most marvelous periods to date. 










NOTE: Click OLDER POSTS at the bottom of the page to view the remainder of the blog

A song by Cole Porter to compliment the exploration through my blog...

"THE LOST GENERATION"

For many young Americans, the realities and devastations of WWI affected their psyche in a way that seemed nearly impossible to mend.  The extensive impact the war had on those who fought during it found it an even greater task to assimilate back into the American lifestyle once home, drifting with a sense of aimlessness.  In essence, they were disillusioned, depressed, and unable to cope.  They went to war on the great American ideal that if you do the right thing and act with virtue, good things will come your way.  Yet many of these young soldiers saw the brutality of war first hand, witnessed the mutilation of fellow soldiers, even their deaths, and the arbitrary promise American society propelled seemed like a contrived tactic to soothe their nightmares of a war that took more lives, by percentage, than the second World War.  The war was a catalyst for disillusionment, and many mens’ moral compass was altered, shattered and broken.  The moral guideposts these men faithfully clung to that offered them hope during the years of the war became null and void upon returning home either physically, mentally, and above all morally wounded.  Alas, they were lost.  

Though this gives an accurate description of many young men who faced WWI and its aftermath, the term “Lost Generation” is most notably used for the wave of writers and artists who flocked to Paris in the wake of WWI.  The origins of the term used to describe these artists comes from author Gertrude Stein.  The anecdotal story goes that Stein was getting her car fixed at an auto-shop one day, and the owner complained that his mechanic--a young veteran of the war--lost years of auto training when he was away at war and thus was less skilled than previous generations of mechanics.  He then said his young mechanics were ‘une génération perdue,‘ a lost generation.  Stein, who saw this term befitting of the artists who came to Paris with a disenfranchised mind, recounted this story to Ernest Hemingway.  Hemingway later popularized this label of a young generation coming out of war in the epigraph of his first novel, The Sun Also Rises, which stands as a personal tribute to his generation’s place in history--albeit, he later shows disdain for this label in A Moveable Feast.  The Lost Generation’s view of the world was dismal, as they viewed it as flawed, hypocritical, rampant with failure, and perceived themselves as unified “...in rebellion against the stuffy people who were misruling the world” (Cowley 8).   

[Gertrude Stein and lover Alice B. Toklas in her Paris apartment, a place where the Lost Generation members frequently gathered]

   

THE MAGNETIC FORCE OF PARIS

1920s PARISIAN CULTURE & ITS OPEN ENVIRONMENT

The great movement of writers and artists to Paris came in two defining waves, the period after WWI up until the start of the second World War, and the period following WWII, albeit the second wave brought fewer numbers and could never recreate that special capsule in time during the 20s.  Not only American writers, but socialites as well such as Peggy Guggenheim from New York came to Paris for its irresistible attraction, and the number of Americans in 1924 swelled from only 6,000 in 1921.  The city of Paris held appeal for various reasons, one of which was its alluring culture.  The societal and economic pressure following the First World War brought forth  a new mood for a pronounced and clean-cut look.  “Art Deco was an innovative design style popular in the 1920s and 1930s.  Its sleek, streamlined forms conveyed elegance and sophistication” (Whitehouse).  One of Art Deco’s most popular outlets was through jewelry which focused on the geometric shapes of circles, arcs, squares, etc, and used platinum as a medium laced with the opaque stones of jade, onyx and lapis.  This new type of modern sophistication showed up in fashion as well with one of the luminaries in fashion history, Coco Chanel, sitting at the top of trend-setting couturiers.  Men returning home from the war took on a newfound perspective of creating France as a more democratic and egalitarian society, with the potential of greater equality between the sexes; an ideal best exemplified through the style and dress blossoming during this decade.  In Paris Fashions: The Art Deco Style of the 1920s, author Madeleine Ginsburg explains, “[by] mid decade, in fashion terms the ideal new woman was a tomboy, a garconne, young, slim, athletic, short-haired and short-skirted, almost androgynous in appearance; a friend and an equal rather than a passive dependent” (12).  No longer was a woman perceived merely as a housewife, but could now experience independence, in which they saw fashion as an outlet to achieve this.  Hair was cut shorter, more vibrant make up and perfume was worn, and women experienced the liberty of smoking in public.  Corsets were abandoned, large over-sized hats tossed aside, and these constraints that symbolized the pre-war female reserve were replaced by fashions’ role in the new freedoms that swept over this time period.  In a way, fashion as an outlet of independence was an odd mix of showcasing tomboy qualities while still keeping their feminism intact.  The Parisian culture was also changed by the accumulation of wealth now seen in the middle class, compliments of the fall-outs of the post-war inflation.  All thanks to this new wealth, the automobile industry and department stores saw a boom in profits, as well as the theaters, operas, and Jazz clubs that were frequented.  The wealthy were now not the only class to experience this leisure, and the boosting income of the middle class got to experience the new developments in fashion and cars, which were perceived as symbols of elegance and modernity.  It goes without saying, the Parisians knew how to have fun.   

THE “JAZZ AGE” & THE PROGRESSIVE PARISIAN SOCIETY

[July 2012]

The jazz culture was alive and well in America during the 20s, and when it was brought over to Paris with the help of musician Sidney Bechet, the music was highly receptive with the French audience, yet looking back, it was really the expatriate artists who defined the “Jazz Age” in Paris.  The center where the jazz culture really came alive was in the areas of Montparnasse and Montmartre, fitting, as these places were also artistic and creative centers for the Lost Generation artists.  Another American who helped put jazz music on the map in Paris was African American singer Josephine Baker, who drew in large crowds to see her grace the stage with her high-pitched voice.  In short time, Baker was appearing at the Moulin Rouge.  Baker was quickly named a star by the French audience, a role Baker would have never been given back home in America, as racism was still a dominant presence in American society.  Parisian society's acceptance of minorities was also a draw in for many expatriates.  Besides their acceptance of people of different color, they were also accepting of lesbians and gays.  Women, both French and expatriate, were able to explore aspects of their sexuality in Paris, such as bisexuality and lesbianism, which would never be solicited by the propriety of American society in the 20s and 30s.  Back home, Hollywood was simultaneously trying to enforce a moral authority over films, dubbed the “Production Code,” as many circles of American society were outraged by the sexual and drug content on screen that mimicked the role drugs and sex played in society off screen.  These controversial topics were hailed as un-American, yet luckily for the self-imposed expatriates, they could escape the stifling American society--which they saw as intellectually and politically sub par as well--by taking part in the sexual freedom offered by Paris--such as American composer Cole Porter, who was a closet homosexual.  

ARTISTIC FREEDOM & EXPRESSION

It was more than just the less socially restrictive lifestyle and tolerance for innovation and experimentation Paris offered, many Americans in Paris viewed their homeland as a cultural sink, as they perceived America as “...inhospitable to art” ( Monk 28).  “They were drawn to Paris by the reputed vitality of its artistic and intellectual scene [and] by the high respect accorded the artist by Parisians of all classes, and by the accompanying level of freedom allowed the individual in his or her search for identity and artistic voice” ("Literary Expatriates in Paris").  Writers felt more free to publish in Paris versus in America, as a result of the 1920 crackdown on radicals under Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer.  And to no surprise, writers of the Lost Generation who included more detailed descriptions of violence, sexuality and profanity into their literature--which literature of this period is noted for--saw the banning of much of their work in the United States for many years.  Paris soon became a cultural Mecca as artists such as Salvador Dali and Pablo Picasso, writers such as D. H. Lawrence, Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, among other artists from the U.S., U.K., and Canada flooded the artistic centers of Paris.        

Another point of enticement of Paris during this time was the favorable exchange rate.  Writers, sculptors, poets, and painters who were virtually penniless could excel in the creative atmosphere in areas such as Montparnasse for very low rent, particularly in the community of La Ruche.  The American dollar went a long way, and for many international expatriates who had yet to garner significant profits off of their art--save for Pablo Picasso--could now wine and dine along the cafes of Rue Mouffetard among others; their dream of living in the Bohemian environment of Paris that once seemed financially improbable was now a viable economic proposition.

ALLURING NIGHTLIFE

   

Of course, a major factor in drawing these artists to Paris was the wanderlust of the city, for many Americans, coming to Paris was a fantastic way of escaping Prohibition back at home.  And they no doubt took advantage of this opportunity by drinking copious amounts of alcohol, including absinthe, and more than soaked up the city’s night life.  For a generation in which the war destroyed a lifestyle they were prepared to live, they had instead been equipped with a life of excitement, travel, and partying.  Though these artists managed to produce some of the best literary and artistic work to come out of the 20th century, their frequent drinking and nights out are the symptoms of self-destructive behaviors of a generation disillusioned and unable to cope.  

ERNEST HEMINGWAY

Though many international expatriates flooded the artistic scene of 1920s Paris, the most commonly discussed expatriate is American novelist Ernest Hemingway, probably for his long stay in Paris and the widely receptive literature he wrote while there.  Born in Illinois in 1899, Hemingway grew up having an affinity for masculine activities such as boxing and football, which helped shape not only his burly exterior but also his personality.  Due to permanent eye damage from his boxing pursuits, Hemingway was rejected from serving in WWI on a repeated basis, which of course for a man who boasted his masculinity, did not bode well for him.  He thus resulted to being a volunteer ambulance driver for the Red Cross during the war--a personal experience he drew inspiration from for his character Frederic Henry in his novel A Farewell to Arms (1929).  This was a stint short-lived, as he was let go from his service very quickly because of his damaged eye.  After the war, Hemingway expatriated himself to Paris like many others like him for the freedom the city offered.  Hemingway first arrived with very little money, as he had yet to become a profitable writer, but with the success of his first novel The Sun Also Rises, he dined around the city on a more luxurious level.

[July 2012]

[July 2012]

The picture above notes the Hôtel d'Angleterre which Hemingway stayed with his first wife Hadley and their little son “Bumby” on their first night in Paris.  Though Hemingway eventually had an affair with a wealthy Parisian fashion reporter named Pauline Pfeiffer and conclusively had four marriages during his life, he shows remorse and regret for his failed marriage with Hadley in his final work A Moveable Feast, a nostalgic account of his life in Paris and his first idyllic years in the city with Hadley. 

[July 2012]

During the early years of his initial stay in Paris, Hemingway went to more modest cafes, such as Cafe des Amateurs now called Cafe La Contrescarpe pictured above, on Rue Mouffetard.  Hemingway recounts, “The Cafe des Amateurs...the men and the woman...” (Hemingway 3).  Though this was not a spot where Hemingway enjoyed writing, albeit it was where he had quite a few drinks, he enjoyed walking down the street Mouffetard and peering into the cafes and street-side markets.  Hemingway wrote articles as a foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star newspaper his first years in Paris to obtain a rather humble, yet constant flow of income.  He notes the initial years of frugality in Paris when recounting “traveling third class” with his wife and son in A Moveable Feast (7).    

[July 2012]

[July 2012]

After Hemingway garnered literary and financial success with his first novel The Sun Also Rises (1926), he became a regular patron of cafes such as Les Deux Magots and La Closerie des Lilas, where he worked on much of his writing.  Hemingway probably enjoyed their oysters and and glass of wine, a usual meal for him he speaks of in A Moveable Feast (7). 

[July 2012]

[July 2012]

[July 2012]

Hemingway also found inspiration walking through the picturesque Jardin du Luxembourg situated on Rue de Vaugirard.  Hemingway states, “...in the afternoon...I went there nearly everyday...” (13).  Years later during his second marriage to Pauline, Hemingway lived in an apartment near the gardens, an indicator that the gardens were truly a peaceful resort for him.

Another source of tranquility and inspiration for Hemingway--surely the same for anyone who has walked along its banks--was taking long walks along the Seine.  Hemingway enjoyed walking as opposed to public transportation, as he could soak in the city that allowed him so much inspiration.  “...with the narrow streets and the old, tall, beautiful houses...you could...” (Hemingway 41).  

[July 2012]

F. SCOTT FITZGERALD

[July 2012]

Another notable member of the Lost Generation was F. Scott Fitzgerald.  He had already garnered literary success with his first novel This Side of Paradise (1920), But it was upon his move to Paris in 1924 that allotted him influences that would forever shape his literary career.  During this decade in Paris Fitzgerald’s rise as a prominent literary figure saw its greatest development, namely with the publication of The Great Gatsby, which he started in New York but reshaped in Paris until its completion in 1925.  Fitzgerald shared an apartment across the Jardin du Luxembourg on 58 Rue de Vaugirard with his wife Zelda, pictured above, also seeking inspiration from the gardens as Hemingway did.  Interestingly, Hemingway met Fitzgerald at a bar, and they shared a close friendship until their falling-out years later--which seemed to be a trend for Hemingway among the members of the Lost Generation.  Hemingway’s initial opinion of Fitzgerald was surely not favorable, as he viewed him as un-masculine, delicate, a heavy and unmanageable drinker, unable to control his wild, and arguably insane, wife Zelda, and even more biting was his view that Fitzgerald was not “...a serious writer.” (Hemingway 155).  This all changed, however, after Hemingway read Fitzgerald’s manuscript of The Great Gatsby, in which the extraordinary nature of the novel quickly humbled Hemingway’s mockery--a rarity for a man with a tough exterior shielding a fragile ego.    

[July 2012]

Right around the corner of the Hôtel d'Angleterre where Hemingway spent his first night in Paris, is a little cafe on Rue Bonaparte called Le Pré aux Clercs, a popular watering hole Fitzgerald and Hemingway shared many a drink.  In A Moveable Feast, Hemingway also fondly remembers his friend when speaking of a road trip they took together to pick up a car Zelda left in Lyon, and recalls being enthusiastic about being in the company of an older and successful writer.    

For the duration of their short-lived friendship, Hemingway became a confidante of sorts to Fitzgerald, who came to him frequently with complaints of his uncontrollable wife Zelda.  No doubt she was the original proprietor in emasculating her husband, allegedly telling him no one would want to have an affair with him due to the size of his genitals.  As the story goes, Hemingway checked for himself and conclusively told his fragile comrade that it was not so.  Hemingway would often sit at cafes with Fitzgerald pleading with him that his wife was stifling his literally career.  Hemingway’s concerns were not unfounded as Zelda frequently drained her husbands pockets to support her lavish lifestyle and nights of partying.  They would also sit together at cafes discussing their latest works, giving feedback, criticism, and sometimes brutal honesty.  Despite Fitzgerald’s literally and figuratively draining wife Zelda, and his very apparent drinking problem--probably brought on by his handful of a wife Zelda, of which Hemingway often pointed out--he still managed to produce some of the best literary works to come out of the 20th century, owed in part to his fellow compatriots and the intangibles found within the city of Paris.  

GERTRUDE STEIN

[July 2012]

Gertrude Stein was already living in Paris before the heyday of the 20s, arriving in 1903 and staying in Paris for the duration of her life.  The avant-garde Germain-Jewish American writer and poet received her first work of critical acclaim with the publishing of the novel Three Lives (1909), and was financially stable by the time the Lost Generation arrived in the 20s.  Along with her brother Leo, and lover Alice B. Toklas, they shared apartment 27 on Rue de Fleurus.  In A Moveable Feast, Hemingway recalls being invited over with his wife Hadley and seeing the eclectic paintings that graced the walls of her apartment.  She acted as a mentor of sorts for the artists of the Lost Generation and invited them over for weekly salons to discuss their drafts and engage in creative and political conversations.  She was kind and welcoming, but honest when it came to their work and their writing.  Hemingway, Fitzgerald, Ford Madox Ford, and James Joyce among others, frequently found themselves coming to Stein with their latest writings for helpful criticisms and an encouraging voice.  This highly opinionated mama-san of the expatriates was highly influential in guiding these young artists and was a bit harsh--sometimes too harsh--in urging and expressing their need to find their own literary and artistic voice.  As it turns out, her persistent encouragement helped, as Hemingway found his trademark style of realism, short sentences, violent depictions, and the abandonment of the Romantic style, which is illustrated best in his novel A Farewell to Arms.  A patron of the arts and one for nonconformity, Stein’s apartment was filled with works by Cezanne along with the wildly colored and crude figures found in the works of Matisse.  Interestingly, it was Stein who arranged Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso to meet for the first time.  In 1906, “Stein took Matisse to Picasso’s studio...” and they, too, joined the writers at her weekly salons (Trachtman).

PABLO PICASSO

[July 2012]

[July 2012]

[July 2012]

[July 2012]

By the 1920s, painter and sculptor Pablo Picasso was already financially established, mainly from the American collectors who had purchased his work since the turn of the century.  Unlike his expatriate counterparts, however, he was more frugal with his money and seldom spent it on lavish parties as did his fellow expatriate comrades.  He sold and produced much of his work in the areas of Montmartre and Montparnasse, which were communities of painters, sculptors and other such artists.  He even lived in Montmartre for some time where he had a studio that functioned as his work space and home, as well as an apartment on Rue Lepic, pictured above, the latter of which has since been turned into a small museum of the revolutionary painters of his time.  He was influenced by the work and interaction with Paul Cezanne, hailed as the father of modern art, as well as Matisse, and went on to be a prolific founder in the Cubist movement, a style characteristic of a three-dimensional form with objects broken up into an abstract fashion.  Picasso drew inspiration from his counterparts, painters and writers alike.

[July 2012]

[July 2012]

There were many other expatriate artists present in the 20s, including Salvador Dali, an innovative painter putting the avant-garde style of Surrealism on the map.  Other prolific painters include Man Ray, who had a studio right across from the Jardin du Luxembourg as pictured above.  A painter, fashion photographer, and most notably a connoisseur of avant-garde photography, Man Ray is another artist noted for his contributions to the Surrealist and Dada artistic movements.  Other noteworthy writers among the Lost Generation are Ford Madox Ford, Djuna Barnes, James Joyce, and William Faulkner--notable for his literally style of stream-of-consciousness--who lived in a hotel across from the Jardin du Luxembourg, and where Faulkner allegedly worked on his acclaimed novel The Sound and the Fury (1929).